Welcome to the Educator Resource Page
Purpose: To provide UHS mainstream classroom teachers with the tools and knowledge necessary to effectively teach culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Who are my students?
If you have students whose first language is not English they may fall into several different categories:
Emergent Bilinguals are students who aren't proficient enough in English to meet state standards or perform at grade level in a mainstream English language classroom. They may be in the ESL program or their parents may have waived ESL services and chosen instead to enroll their child in mainstream classes. (Batlova, 2006)
Bilinguals are students who have reached English proficiency and have the skills necessary to perform at grade level in a mainstream classroom.
English language learners are students who are working towards English proficiency but may already be proficient in several other languages.
Teenage students of any background face challenges, but linguistically and culturally diverse high school students may be more vulnerable than students from the dominant cultural group. Often English language learners are afraid of making mistakes in front of their peers so they won't participate or volunteer information in class. (McKay, 2006) They do not like being called on without advanced warning and they become anxious when speaking in front of large groups. Don't make assumptions about their understanding. If you ask them, "Do you understand?" The will respond "yes" the vast majority of the time even if it's not true. They do not like to ask questions, especially if they think you won't understand them. A better way to elicit information from them is to ask them to explain something back to you or demonstrate it for you. They should participate in class so that they feel that they are part of the learning community but you should give them advanced notice so that they can prepare. Students from the same language group can often provide linguistic support for each other. It is a good idea to let them work together but make sure they interact with students outside of their linguistic/cultural group.
Another important factor to remember is that there is a great deal of variation among English language learners. Their skills differ based on the language mode (reading, writing, listening, and speaking). They have a dominant language but they may not have a great deal of proficiency in their dominant language. Some students may have had a long period of uninterrupted schooling and have strong literacy skills in their dominant language, while others may have only attended school intermittently and have low literacy skills. Each student is unique and has a variety of needs. (Solano-Flores and Trumbell, 2008)
If you have students whose first language is not English they may fall into several different categories:
Emergent Bilinguals are students who aren't proficient enough in English to meet state standards or perform at grade level in a mainstream English language classroom. They may be in the ESL program or their parents may have waived ESL services and chosen instead to enroll their child in mainstream classes. (Batlova, 2006)
Bilinguals are students who have reached English proficiency and have the skills necessary to perform at grade level in a mainstream classroom.
English language learners are students who are working towards English proficiency but may already be proficient in several other languages.
Teenage students of any background face challenges, but linguistically and culturally diverse high school students may be more vulnerable than students from the dominant cultural group. Often English language learners are afraid of making mistakes in front of their peers so they won't participate or volunteer information in class. (McKay, 2006) They do not like being called on without advanced warning and they become anxious when speaking in front of large groups. Don't make assumptions about their understanding. If you ask them, "Do you understand?" The will respond "yes" the vast majority of the time even if it's not true. They do not like to ask questions, especially if they think you won't understand them. A better way to elicit information from them is to ask them to explain something back to you or demonstrate it for you. They should participate in class so that they feel that they are part of the learning community but you should give them advanced notice so that they can prepare. Students from the same language group can often provide linguistic support for each other. It is a good idea to let them work together but make sure they interact with students outside of their linguistic/cultural group.
Another important factor to remember is that there is a great deal of variation among English language learners. Their skills differ based on the language mode (reading, writing, listening, and speaking). They have a dominant language but they may not have a great deal of proficiency in their dominant language. Some students may have had a long period of uninterrupted schooling and have strong literacy skills in their dominant language, while others may have only attended school intermittently and have low literacy skills. Each student is unique and has a variety of needs. (Solano-Flores and Trumbell, 2008)
How do I assess them if I don't speak their language?
It's important to remember a few things about your bilingual students. First, they are NOT blank slates. They have begun learning in their native language and have prior experiences that shape their learning. In order to be an effective teacher you need to think about the students' linguistic and cultural knowledge in order to create accurate assessments that are unbiased. (Garcia et al, 2008)
It's important to remember a few things about your bilingual students. First, they are NOT blank slates. They have begun learning in their native language and have prior experiences that shape their learning. In order to be an effective teacher you need to think about the students' linguistic and cultural knowledge in order to create accurate assessments that are unbiased. (Garcia et al, 2008)
I'm not biased, am I?
Bias can appear in many different forms. As teachers we believe that we always put our students' needs first and strive to ensure that we are consistent and fair. Sometimes our assessments are biased towards the dominant culture and we don't realize it. Think about this math question:
"Johnny plays in a summer baseball league. His team's name is the Broncos. This season his team is scheduled to play the Wildcats, the Cougars, the Wolverines, and the Bulldogs. Teams that win 75% of their games will enter the playoffs. How many teams do the Broncos need to beat in order to enter the playoffs?"
What seems like a simple math problem could potentially be incomprehensible for bilingual students. Consider the fact that culturally diverse students may not be familiar with baseball. If that's the case would they understand the words league, season or playoffs? If they're from the inner-city would they have any prior knowledge of what a Bronco or Wolverine is? What may look like an easy question would like something like this to a bilingual student:
"Johnny plays in a summer baseball lkjlkjlj. His team's name is the Blkjlkjlkj. This skljoijlj his team is scheduled to play the Wijoijlj, the Cljlkjlkj, the Whjkhkjhkjh, and the Bkjdogs. Teams that win 75% of their games will enter the plkjlijlj. How many teams do the Bkljihn, need to beat in order to enter the poinoihlj?"
Now how easy is it to answer the question? By including just a few words that a student may not know in a context that is unfamiliar, the entire question becomes more difficult. Students spend more time worrying about all of the words they don't know than focusing on what the question is asking. By giving questions like this on an assessment, you favor the dominant culture and language group. You're not testing the students' content knowledge, you're testing their vocabulary and cultural familiarity. It's what's known as "construct irrelevant variance". (Basterra, 2011)
Bias can appear in many different forms. As teachers we believe that we always put our students' needs first and strive to ensure that we are consistent and fair. Sometimes our assessments are biased towards the dominant culture and we don't realize it. Think about this math question:
"Johnny plays in a summer baseball league. His team's name is the Broncos. This season his team is scheduled to play the Wildcats, the Cougars, the Wolverines, and the Bulldogs. Teams that win 75% of their games will enter the playoffs. How many teams do the Broncos need to beat in order to enter the playoffs?"
What seems like a simple math problem could potentially be incomprehensible for bilingual students. Consider the fact that culturally diverse students may not be familiar with baseball. If that's the case would they understand the words league, season or playoffs? If they're from the inner-city would they have any prior knowledge of what a Bronco or Wolverine is? What may look like an easy question would like something like this to a bilingual student:
"Johnny plays in a summer baseball lkjlkjlj. His team's name is the Blkjlkjlkj. This skljoijlj his team is scheduled to play the Wijoijlj, the Cljlkjlkj, the Whjkhkjhkjh, and the Bkjdogs. Teams that win 75% of their games will enter the plkjlijlj. How many teams do the Bkljihn, need to beat in order to enter the poinoihlj?"
Now how easy is it to answer the question? By including just a few words that a student may not know in a context that is unfamiliar, the entire question becomes more difficult. Students spend more time worrying about all of the words they don't know than focusing on what the question is asking. By giving questions like this on an assessment, you favor the dominant culture and language group. You're not testing the students' content knowledge, you're testing their vocabulary and cultural familiarity. It's what's known as "construct irrelevant variance". (Basterra, 2011)
How can I avoid giving biased assessments?
When you create assessments you can rely on a tool called the "Usefulness" framework. (McKay, 2006) There are several aspects of the "Usefulness" framework that are relevant to secondary school teachers. Think of a test that you have recently administered. Now answer the following questions:
1) Is the assessment interactive? (Does it allow the student to use language at his/her ability level?)
2) Is the assessment authentic? (Does it require that the student use language that he/she would use in or outside the classroom?)
3) Is the assessment practical? (Do you have the time and resources needed to consistently and fairly assess every student?)
4) Does the assessment provide construct validity? (Are you assessing content knowledge or language skills?)
5) Does the assessment have a positive impact? (Does it help students learn and improve their skills?)
If you answered "No" to any of the questions above then your assessment should be modified. We teachers need to be "biased for the best" when it comes to assessments. (Swain, 1985) We want our students to show us what they are capable of. To do so we need to distinguish between academic language proficiency and content proficiency. (Duvenger, 2005 as cited in Garcia et al, 2008)
To be successful in a school setting students of all ages and ethnicities need to be familiar with key terminology; we associate many of these terms with Bloom's Taxonomy. Verbs such as compare, contrast, explain, describe, infer, predict, hypothesize, analyze, evaluate, and defend are essential for students to understand if we want them to develop higher-order thinking skills. These words fall into the "Academic English" category; these are the same words that many English language learners struggle with. (Herrera, 2007)
You might be surprised to learn that some English language learners can communicate successfully in a social setting but when it comes to using academic vocabulary they are stumped. These 2 sets of skills are called BICS (basic interpersonal communication skills) and CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency). (Herrera, 2007) If you have students that appear to speak English fluently but they struggle with reading and writing assignments it may be that their CALP has not reached grade level proficiency. (Bailey, 2008) In this case you need to modify the language so that they understand the instructions. For example, next to the word evaluate in a math question you could write "find the answer" in parentheses.
At the other end of the spectrum you may have students who have a difficult time speaking and listening but their reading and writing skills are more developed. These students may have a high CALP in their native language and they are able to transfer knowledge from their first language to English based on a common underlying proficiency- linguistic knowledge that can be applied to other languages. (Herrera, 2007) Make sure you annunciate and speak at a medium pace. Wait an appropriate amount of time when you ask these students questions out loud. These students greatly benefit from visual support.
When you create assessments you can rely on a tool called the "Usefulness" framework. (McKay, 2006) There are several aspects of the "Usefulness" framework that are relevant to secondary school teachers. Think of a test that you have recently administered. Now answer the following questions:
1) Is the assessment interactive? (Does it allow the student to use language at his/her ability level?)
2) Is the assessment authentic? (Does it require that the student use language that he/she would use in or outside the classroom?)
3) Is the assessment practical? (Do you have the time and resources needed to consistently and fairly assess every student?)
4) Does the assessment provide construct validity? (Are you assessing content knowledge or language skills?)
5) Does the assessment have a positive impact? (Does it help students learn and improve their skills?)
If you answered "No" to any of the questions above then your assessment should be modified. We teachers need to be "biased for the best" when it comes to assessments. (Swain, 1985) We want our students to show us what they are capable of. To do so we need to distinguish between academic language proficiency and content proficiency. (Duvenger, 2005 as cited in Garcia et al, 2008)
To be successful in a school setting students of all ages and ethnicities need to be familiar with key terminology; we associate many of these terms with Bloom's Taxonomy. Verbs such as compare, contrast, explain, describe, infer, predict, hypothesize, analyze, evaluate, and defend are essential for students to understand if we want them to develop higher-order thinking skills. These words fall into the "Academic English" category; these are the same words that many English language learners struggle with. (Herrera, 2007)
You might be surprised to learn that some English language learners can communicate successfully in a social setting but when it comes to using academic vocabulary they are stumped. These 2 sets of skills are called BICS (basic interpersonal communication skills) and CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency). (Herrera, 2007) If you have students that appear to speak English fluently but they struggle with reading and writing assignments it may be that their CALP has not reached grade level proficiency. (Bailey, 2008) In this case you need to modify the language so that they understand the instructions. For example, next to the word evaluate in a math question you could write "find the answer" in parentheses.
At the other end of the spectrum you may have students who have a difficult time speaking and listening but their reading and writing skills are more developed. These students may have a high CALP in their native language and they are able to transfer knowledge from their first language to English based on a common underlying proficiency- linguistic knowledge that can be applied to other languages. (Herrera, 2007) Make sure you annunciate and speak at a medium pace. Wait an appropriate amount of time when you ask these students questions out loud. These students greatly benefit from visual support.
What if I don't have time to follow the "Usefulness" framework?
Let's be honest, it's impossible to follow the "Usefulness" framework each time we give students assessments. In every class we teach we use some type of formative assessment. When we walk around the room checking student work, do a group question and answer session, or create an exit slip question on the fly, we don't have time to stop and check off the components of the "Usefulness" framework. Hopefully we will keep the aspects of the framework in the back of our mind so that when we do have a moment to stop and consider what we should do next we have some guidance for developing meaningful learning activities. However, I strongly suggest that you use the framework when developing high-impact summative assessments. These assessments make up a significant portion of the students' grades. It's the best time for us to get an idea of what exactly our students can do. If we're going to get an accurate idea of their skills, we need to make sure that we assess them fairly.
Let's be honest, it's impossible to follow the "Usefulness" framework each time we give students assessments. In every class we teach we use some type of formative assessment. When we walk around the room checking student work, do a group question and answer session, or create an exit slip question on the fly, we don't have time to stop and check off the components of the "Usefulness" framework. Hopefully we will keep the aspects of the framework in the back of our mind so that when we do have a moment to stop and consider what we should do next we have some guidance for developing meaningful learning activities. However, I strongly suggest that you use the framework when developing high-impact summative assessments. These assessments make up a significant portion of the students' grades. It's the best time for us to get an idea of what exactly our students can do. If we're going to get an accurate idea of their skills, we need to make sure that we assess them fairly.
What do an ESL teacher's assessments look like?
When I create assessments for my English language learners I start out with several goals in mind:
1) To create an assessment that will require students to develop metacognitive skills;
2) To create an assessment that will inform both my students and myself about their performance and progress;
3) To challenge students to recognize academic language and at the same time demonstrate their content knowledge.
This of course is easier said than done. It is not uncommon for me to have students at 3 different proficiency levels over the 4 language domains (Reading, Writing, Speaking, and Listening) in the same class. Differentiation is always on my mind. I could spend every waking moment figuring out alternative ways to differentiate assignments. But in an effort to preserve my sanity, I focus on creating a couple truly effective assessments per unit. I try new things all of the time and then I either keep them and adapt them or throw them out. My students' needs constantly change as their language skills progress.
I too have been trying to follow the "Usefulness" framework. In previous years I focused on simplifying the language of content-based assessments so that students could better understand the question. Now that I have studied the "Usefulness" framework and have learned about various forms of alternative assessments I have drastically changed the format of my assessments. Using alternative assessments to supplement traditional formal assessments (such as multiple choice exams) has been proven to improve assessment practices. (Herrera, 2007)
Formative assessments: I use vocabulary familiarity surveys (pre-tests), observation checklists, vocabulary boxes, portfolios, warm-ups, and exit slips.
Summative assessments: I use Performance-based assessments that require students to complete language tasks using content-specific concepts and vocabulary. These assessments are based on classroom instruction and provide feedback that I and my students can use. I try to design assessments that are authentic so that I can tell my students that if they are successful demonstrating this skill in the classroom it will make their lives much easier outside of school. Authentic assessments that I currently use are: writing Penpal letters, sending emails, writing skits, designing a class newsletter, interviewing guest speakers, creating small group presentations using different computer programs, and developing audio-visual lessons to teach to other students of various ability levels. The students have responded positively because they know that these assessments have a real-world application.
I have included several Word files below that contain examples of assessments that I have used this year with my English language learners. The rubrics and graphic organizers can easily be adapted for mainstream classes.
When I create assessments for my English language learners I start out with several goals in mind:
1) To create an assessment that will require students to develop metacognitive skills;
2) To create an assessment that will inform both my students and myself about their performance and progress;
3) To challenge students to recognize academic language and at the same time demonstrate their content knowledge.
This of course is easier said than done. It is not uncommon for me to have students at 3 different proficiency levels over the 4 language domains (Reading, Writing, Speaking, and Listening) in the same class. Differentiation is always on my mind. I could spend every waking moment figuring out alternative ways to differentiate assignments. But in an effort to preserve my sanity, I focus on creating a couple truly effective assessments per unit. I try new things all of the time and then I either keep them and adapt them or throw them out. My students' needs constantly change as their language skills progress.
I too have been trying to follow the "Usefulness" framework. In previous years I focused on simplifying the language of content-based assessments so that students could better understand the question. Now that I have studied the "Usefulness" framework and have learned about various forms of alternative assessments I have drastically changed the format of my assessments. Using alternative assessments to supplement traditional formal assessments (such as multiple choice exams) has been proven to improve assessment practices. (Herrera, 2007)
Formative assessments: I use vocabulary familiarity surveys (pre-tests), observation checklists, vocabulary boxes, portfolios, warm-ups, and exit slips.
Summative assessments: I use Performance-based assessments that require students to complete language tasks using content-specific concepts and vocabulary. These assessments are based on classroom instruction and provide feedback that I and my students can use. I try to design assessments that are authentic so that I can tell my students that if they are successful demonstrating this skill in the classroom it will make their lives much easier outside of school. Authentic assessments that I currently use are: writing Penpal letters, sending emails, writing skits, designing a class newsletter, interviewing guest speakers, creating small group presentations using different computer programs, and developing audio-visual lessons to teach to other students of various ability levels. The students have responded positively because they know that these assessments have a real-world application.
I have included several Word files below that contain examples of assessments that I have used this year with my English language learners. The rubrics and graphic organizers can easily be adapted for mainstream classes.
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Is it really going to make a difference if I modify my assessments?
Assessments play a very large role in the education of an English language learner. Assessments are used to identify students with special needs and place them accordingly, provide accountability of academic progress, measure content learning and language proficiency, reclassify students as their needs change, and identify students who are ready to exit support programs and enter mainstream classrooms. (Herrera, 2007) Even bilingual students who are not receiving ESL services are monitored. The ESL/Bilingual staff communicates with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to ensure that the students' needs are being met. Every action you take in your class to provide better instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students is appreciated.
Assessments play a very large role in the education of an English language learner. Assessments are used to identify students with special needs and place them accordingly, provide accountability of academic progress, measure content learning and language proficiency, reclassify students as their needs change, and identify students who are ready to exit support programs and enter mainstream classrooms. (Herrera, 2007) Even bilingual students who are not receiving ESL services are monitored. The ESL/Bilingual staff communicates with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to ensure that the students' needs are being met. Every action you take in your class to provide better instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students is appreciated.
What resources do you recommend?
The good news is that you already have several great resources at your disposal. The CRISS strategies book from our district training provides very effective activities and graphic organizers that greatly benefit English language learners. Allow students to use a computer for access to online translators and dictionaries. One particularly useful site is www.wordreference.com. The more visual aids, the better. When lecturing, provide guided notes and make sure you present information orally and visually. Sometimes students can recognizes cognates when they see written words so it is important to give them the opportunity to view the words. Break down words into prefixes, roots, and suffixes; the students will be able to recognize the parts and deduce the overall meaning of unfamiliar words. When you show videos, use the subtitle option. If you have a subscription to www.brainpop.com, you can access short videos in a variety of content areas. The site provides graphic organizers, supplemental activities and articles and educational games.
For a better idea of what your students are capable of, visit the WIDA Can-Do descriptors site for 9th-12th grade students. This site provides lists of activities/skills that students can do based on their English proficiency level. And coming soon to UHS... Skills-based report cards for all students in the ESL program. Expect to see these at the beginning of Fall 2012.
Suggested Texts:
Basterra, M. del Rosario, Trumbell, E., & Solano-Flores, G. (2011). Cultural validity in assessment. Addressing linguistic and cultural diversity. New York:
Routledge.
García, G.E., McKoon,G., & August, D. (2008). Language and literacy assessment. In D. August and T. Shanahan (Eds.,) Developing reading and
writing in second-language learners: Lessons from the report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-minority and youth (pp. 251 – 274).
New York: Taylor & Francis.
Herrera, S.G, Murry, K.G, & Cabral, R. M. (2007). Assessment Accommodations for Classroom Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Allyn & Bacon.
McKay, P. (2006). Assessing Young Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Solano-Flores, G. & Trumbell, E. (2008). In what language should English language learners be tested? In R.J. Kopriva (Ed.,) Improving testing for
English language learners (pp. 169 – 201). New York: Routledge.
As always I encourage you to contact me directly at [email protected] if you have any questions, comments, or concerns related to teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students.
I want to especially thank the UHS teachers who responded to my survey for Instructors of non-native English speakers. Your questions and comments gave me guidance when designing this website :) Keep up the great work UHS!
The good news is that you already have several great resources at your disposal. The CRISS strategies book from our district training provides very effective activities and graphic organizers that greatly benefit English language learners. Allow students to use a computer for access to online translators and dictionaries. One particularly useful site is www.wordreference.com. The more visual aids, the better. When lecturing, provide guided notes and make sure you present information orally and visually. Sometimes students can recognizes cognates when they see written words so it is important to give them the opportunity to view the words. Break down words into prefixes, roots, and suffixes; the students will be able to recognize the parts and deduce the overall meaning of unfamiliar words. When you show videos, use the subtitle option. If you have a subscription to www.brainpop.com, you can access short videos in a variety of content areas. The site provides graphic organizers, supplemental activities and articles and educational games.
For a better idea of what your students are capable of, visit the WIDA Can-Do descriptors site for 9th-12th grade students. This site provides lists of activities/skills that students can do based on their English proficiency level. And coming soon to UHS... Skills-based report cards for all students in the ESL program. Expect to see these at the beginning of Fall 2012.
Suggested Texts:
Basterra, M. del Rosario, Trumbell, E., & Solano-Flores, G. (2011). Cultural validity in assessment. Addressing linguistic and cultural diversity. New York:
Routledge.
García, G.E., McKoon,G., & August, D. (2008). Language and literacy assessment. In D. August and T. Shanahan (Eds.,) Developing reading and
writing in second-language learners: Lessons from the report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-minority and youth (pp. 251 – 274).
New York: Taylor & Francis.
Herrera, S.G, Murry, K.G, & Cabral, R. M. (2007). Assessment Accommodations for Classroom Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Allyn & Bacon.
McKay, P. (2006). Assessing Young Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Solano-Flores, G. & Trumbell, E. (2008). In what language should English language learners be tested? In R.J. Kopriva (Ed.,) Improving testing for
English language learners (pp. 169 – 201). New York: Routledge.
As always I encourage you to contact me directly at [email protected] if you have any questions, comments, or concerns related to teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students.
I want to especially thank the UHS teachers who responded to my survey for Instructors of non-native English speakers. Your questions and comments gave me guidance when designing this website :) Keep up the great work UHS!
-Last edited by Katie Hutchison, April, 2012